Kramsch & Whiteside (2008)
この論文の詳細は次の通り。
Kramsch, C., & Whiteside, A. (2008). Language ecology in multilingual settings. Towards a theory of symbolic competence. Applied Linguistics, 29 (4), 645-671.
感想:今風の、応用言語学の論文でした。僕はあまり社会的な側面の強い文献は読んでいないのですが、今回じっくりと読んでみて、とても勉強になったと思います。この論文の大きな目的としては、"This paper draws on insights from complexity theory and post-modern sociolinguistics to explore how an ecological approach to language data can illuminate aspects of language use in multilingual settings." (p. 646)という点があるようです。著者らは複数の言語が使用されている言語データをいくつか分析しますが、その箇所については割愛します。次に著者はディスコースの分析方法として提案されてきているいくつかの方法を比較します。最初は会話分析です。会話分析は、分析の方法論としては観察可能な現象と会話のターンの順序の構造に分析が限られるという弱点があります。また、その認識論的な強みとして、"The strength of CA as an epistemological approach rather than a mere tool of analysis lies in its constructionist view of the sicial world that emphasizes participants' local, situated, ethnographic understanding of social reality." (p. 656)著者は、更に談話分析についても言及しています。"While pure CA has dealt mostly with monolingual, symmetrical exchanges between native speakers in everyday life, it has been adopted and expanded by researchers in the broader firld of microethnography and discourse analysis (DA), with varying degrees of adherence to ethnomethodological analytical principles." (p. 656) CAは、DAの"areality-check"として役立つそうです。しかし、"neither CA nor DA can deal with the multiple levels of flobal context itself" (p. 657)という限界があるそうです。
次はMediated communication analysisについて言及されていました。この分析方法について、"Mediated discourse or sociocultural communication studies ... focus less on the individ2uals than on the mediated action itself as a kind of sicla symbolic action" (p. 657)、"this approach's notion of activity, gounded in physical, social, and symbolic affordances, among which language plays an important part as 'a system of relations' (van Lier 2004: 5)" (pp. 657-658, emphasis in original)、と説明がされていました。しかし、その限界として、"they presuppose a social reality bound by the usual constraints of time and space" (p. 658)という点が指摘されていました。更に、"Erickson (2004) makes the distinction between kronos, that is, 'the quantitative aspect of time, time as continuous and thus as measurable'; and kairos, the subjective time of 'tactical appropriateness, of shifting priorities and objects of attention from one qualitatively differing moment to the next' (2004: 6). The use of multiple codes in the data at hand and the exploration of their various subjective resonances by the participants require taking into account not only the measurable communicative time of turns-at-talk within an activity, but the subjective, embodied time of cultural memory (Damasio 1999; Gibbs 2006)" (p. 658, emphasis in original). と述べられていました。
さて、著者が提案するのは、Ecologically oriented analysisです。これはcomplex dynamic systemの考えを色濃く反映した分析方法です。この分析方法には、reality of self and other、timescales、emergentism、unfinalizability、fractals(より大きな、あるいはより小さなパターンを特定の出来事や活動が移し出しているということ)という5つの側面が重要な役割を担うそうです。各側面については、本論文で詳しくまとめてありますので、論文自体をご参照下さい。このアプローチによって、the ecology of multilingual spacesとthe ecology of embodied timeという二つの側面について議論していました。前者に対しては、the ecology of multilingual spacesに関しては"the protagonists in these data signal to each other which symbolic world they identify with at the time of utterance." (p. 660)ということを詳細に検討することができると著者らは考えています。著者らは更に、"Viewing these exchanges as dynamic complex systems enables us to see the various language sused by the participants as part of a more diversified linguistic landscape with various hierarchies of social respectability among codes, and added layers of foregrounding of the code itself rather than just the message. To the multiplicity of languages we must add their subjective resonances in the speakers' embodied memories." (p. 662)後者に対しては、"It is important to note that the protagonists' choice of language is not dictated by some pre-existing and permanent value assigned to each of these languages, rather, the meaning of these choices emerges from the subjective perceptions of shifting power dynamics within the interaction. It draws on multiple timescales of experience..." (p. 662)と述べていました。
最後に著者は、これまで応用言語学では十分に考えられていなかった、多言語使用の場における言語能力(symbolic competence)についてその要素を列挙していました("They seem to display a particularly acute ability to play with various linguistic codes and with the avarious spatial and temporal resonances of these codes. We call this competence 'symbolic competence'" (p. 664))。この能力について、"Symbolic competence is the ability not only to approximate or appropriate for onself someone else's language, but to shape the very context in which the language is learned and used." (p. 664)と説明されています。この能力には主に4つの側面が含まれます。それらは、(1) subjectivity or sunject-positioning ("Subject positioning has to do less with the calculations of rational actors than with multiliguals' heightened awareness of the embodied nature of language and the sedimented emotions associated with the use of a given language" (p. 665))、(2)Historicity or an understanding of the cultural memories evoked by symbolic systems("Throughout the data presented here, we have been confronted with the cultural memories carried by words, gestures, body postures, and scripts taken from a different timescale in a different place and reterritorialized in a Falifornian grocery store. ... Indeed, symbolic competence is the ability to perform and construct various historicities in dialogue with others." (p. 665))、(3)Performativity of the capacity to perform and create alternative realities ("Within an ecological perspective of human exchanges, utterances not only perform some role or meaning, but they bring about that which they utter, that is, they are performatives. We have seen how the utterances of the protagonists in our data recreate environments from other scales of space and time, produce fractals of patterns from one timescale to another. Multilingual environments can elicit complex relationships between speech acts and their perlocutionary effects." (p. 666))、(4)Reframing ("Symbolic competence could thus be defined as the ability to shape the multilingual game in which on e invests - the ability to manipulate the conventional categories and societal norms of truthfulness, legitimacy, seriousness, originality - and to reframe human thought and action. We have seen that this kind of competence is multiply distributed and that it emerges through the interaction of multiple codes and their subjective resonances." (p. 667))、です。ただし、symbolic competenceは必ずしも多言語使用の場に限られるわけではないという注意書きもなされていました(p. 667)。
この論文の結論部分です。"For language learners and educators, symbolic competence is not yet another skill that language users need to master, nor is it a mere component of communicative competence. Rather, it is a mindset that can create 'relationship of possibility' or affordances (van Lier 2004: 105), but only if the individual learns to see him/herself through his/her own embodied history and subjectivity and through the history and subjectivity of others. Our symbolic survival is contingent on framing reality in the way required by the moment, and on being able to enter the game with both full involvement and full detachment. In this sense, the notion of symbolic competence is a late modern way of conceiving of both communicative and intercultural competence in multilingual settings." (pp. 667-668)


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